Phosphate

A phosphate (PO43−) as an inorganic chemical is a salt of phosphoric acid. In organic chemistry, a phosphate, or organophosphate, is an ester of phosphoric acid. Of the various phosphoric acids and phosphates, organic phosphates are important in biochemistry and biogeochemistry (ecology), and inorganic phosphates are mined to obtain phosphorus for use in agriculture and industry. At elevated temperatures in the solid state, phosphates can condense to form pyrophosphates.

The addition and removal of phosphates from proteins in all cells is a pivotal strategy in the regulation of metabolic processes. Phosphorylation and dephosphorylation are important ways that energy is stored and released in living systems.

Chemical properties


The phosphate ion is a polyatomic ion with the empirical formula PO43− and a molar mass of 94.97 g/mol. It consists of one central phosphorus atom surrounded by four oxygen atoms in a tetrahedral arrangement. The phosphate ion carries a negative-three formal charge and is the conjugate base of the hydrogen phosphate ion, HPO42−, which is the conjugate base of H2O4−, the dihydrogen phosphate ion, which in turn is the conjugate base of, phosphoric acid. A phosphate salt forms when a positively charged ion attaches to the negatively charged oxygen atoms of the ion, forming an ionic compound. Many phosphates are not soluble in water at standard temperature and pressure. The, , , , and ammonium phosphates are all water-soluble. Most other phosphates are only slightly soluble or are insoluble in water. As a rule, the hydrogen and dihydrogen phosphates are slightly more soluble than the corresponding phosphates. The pyrophosphates are mostly water-soluble.

Aqueous phosphate exists in four forms. In strongly basic conditions, the phosphate ion (PO43−) predominates, whereas in weakly basic conditions, the hydrogen phosphate ion (HPO42−) is prevalent. In weakly acid conditions, the dihydrogen phosphate ion (H2PO4−) is most common. In strongly acidic conditions, trihydrogen phosphate is the main form.

More precisely, considering these three equilibrium reactions:


 * H+ + H2PO4−


 * H2PO4− H+ + HPO42−


 * HPO42− H+ + PO43−

the corresponding constants at 25 °C (in mol/L) are (see phosphoric acid):


 * $$ K_{a1}=\frac{[\mbox{H}^+][\mbox{H}_2\mbox{PO}_4^-]}{[\mbox{H}_3\mbox{PO}_4]}\simeq 7.5\times10^{-3}$$ (pKa1 2.12)


 * $$K_{a2}=\frac{[\mbox{H}^+][\mbox{HPO}_4^{2-}]}{[\mbox{H}_2\mbox{PO}_4^-]}\simeq 6.2\times10^{-8}$$ (pKa2 7.21)
 * $$ K_{a3}=\frac{[\mbox{H}^+][\mbox{PO}_4^{3-}]}{[\mbox{HPO}_4^{2-}]}\simeq 2.14\times10^{-13}$$ (pKa3 12.67)



The speciation diagram obtained using these pK values shows three distinct regions. In effect,, and  behave as separate weak acids. This is because the successive pK values differ by more than 4. For each acid, the pH at half-neutralization is equal to the pK value of the acid. The region in which the acid is in equilibrium with its conjugate base is defined by pH ≈ pK ± 2. Thus, the three pH regions are approximately 0–4, 5–9 and 10–14. This is idealized, as it assumes constant ionic strength, which will not hold in reality at very low and very high pH values.

For a neutral pH as in the cytosol, pH=7.0
 * $$ \frac{[\mbox{H}_2\mbox{PO}_4^-]}{[\mbox{H}_3\mbox{PO}_4]}\simeq 7.5\times10^4 \mbox{, }\frac{[\mbox{HPO}_4^{2-}]}{[\mbox{H}_2\mbox{PO}_4^-]}\simeq 0.62 \mbox{ , } \frac{[\mbox{PO}_4^{3-}]}{[\mbox{HPO}_4^{2-}]}\simeq 2.14\times10^{-6}$$

so that only and  ions are present in significant amounts (62%, 38% . Note that in the extracellular fluid (pH=7.4), this proportion is inverted (61% , 39% ).

Phosphate can form many polymeric ions such as pyrophosphate),, and triphosphate, . The various metaphosphate ions (which are usually long linear polymers) have an empirical formula of and are found in many compounds.

Biochemistry of phosphates
In biological systems, phosphorus is found as a free phosphate ion in solution and is called inorganic phosphate, to distinguish it from phosphates bound in various phosphate esters. Inorganic phosphate is generally denoted Pi and at physiological (neutral) pH primarily consists of a mixture of and  ions.

Inorganic phosphate can be created by the hydrolysis of pyrophosphate, which is denoted PPi:


 * +  2

However, phosphates are most commonly found in the form of adenosine phosphates, (AMP, ADP, and ATP) and in DNA and RNA, and can be released by the hydrolysis of ATP or ADP. Similar reactions exist for the other nucleoside diphosphates and triphosphates. Phosphoanhydride bonds in ADP and ATP, or other nucleoside diphosphates and triphosphates, contain high amounts of energy which give them their vital role in all living organisms. They are generally referred to as high-energy phosphate, as are the phosphagens in muscle tissue. Compounds such as substituted phosphines have uses in organic chemistry, but do not seem to have any natural counterparts.

The addition and removal of phosphate from proteins in all cells is a pivotal strategy in the regulation of metabolic processes. Phosphorylation and dephosphorylation are important ways that energy is stored and released in living systems. For example, ATP provides energy this way.

Phosphate is useful in animal cells as a buffering agent. Phosphate salts that are commonly used for preparing buffer solutions at cell pHs include Na2HPO4, NaH2PO4, and the corresponding potassium salts.

An important occurrence of phosphates in biological systems is as the structural material of bone and teeth. These structures are made of crystalline calcium phosphate in the form of hydroxyapatite. The hard dense enamel of mammalian teeth consists of fluoroapatite, a hydroxy calcium phosphate where some of the hydroxyl groups have been replaced by fluoride ions.

Plants take up phosphorus through several pathways: the arbuscular mycorrhiza l pathway and the direct uptake pathway.

Occurrence and mining
Phosphates are the naturally occurring form of the element phosphorus, found in many phosphate minerals. In mineralogy and geology, phosphate refers to a rock or ore containing phosphate ions. Inorganic phosphates are mined to obtain phosphorus for use in agriculture and industry.

The largest phosphorite or rock phosphate deposits in North America lie in the Bone Valley region of central Florida, the Soda Springs region of Idaho, and the coast of North Carolina. Smaller deposits are located in Montana, Tennessee, Georgia, and South Carolina near Charleston along Ashley Phosphate road. The small island nation of Nauru and its neighbor Banaba Island, which used to have massive phosphate deposits of the best quality, have been mined excessively. Rock phosphate can also be found in Egypt, Israel, Morocco, Navassa Island, Tunisia, Togo, and Jordan, countries that have large phosphate-mining industries.

Phosphorite mines are primarily found in:


 * North America: United States, especially Florida, with lesser deposits in North Carolina, Idaho, and Tennessee
 * Africa: Algeria, Egypt, Morocco, mainly near Khouribga and Youssoufia; Niger, Senegal, Togo, Tunisia, and Western Sahara, at the town of Bu Craa
 * Middle East: Israel, Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Syria, and Iraq, at the town of Akashat, near the Jordanian border
 * Oceania: Australia, Makatea, Nauru, and Banaba Island

In 2007, at the current rate of consumption, the supply of phosphorus was estimated to run out in 345 years. However, some scientists believed that a "peak phosphorus" will occur in 30 years and Dana Cordell from Institute for Sustainable Futures said that at "current rates, reserves will be depleted in the next 50 to 100 years." Reserves refer to the amount assumed recoverable at current market prices, and, in 2012, the USGS estimated 71 billion tons of world reserves, while 0.19 billion tons were mined globally in 2011. Phosphorus comprises 0.1% by mass of the average rock (while, for perspective, its typical concentration in vegetation is 0.03% to 0.2%), and consequently there are quadrillions of tons of phosphorus in Earth's 3 * 1019 ton crust, albeit at predominantly lower concentration than the deposits counted as reserves from being inventoried and cheaper to extract; if it is assumed that the phosphate minerals in phosphate rock are hydroxyapatite and fluoroapatite, phosphate minerals contain roughly 18,5 % phosphorus by weight and if phosphate rock contains around 20 % of these minerals, the average phosphate rock has roughly 3,7 % phosphorus by weight.

Some phosphate rock deposits are notable for their inclusion of significant quantities of radioactive uranium isotopes. This syndrome is noteworthy because radioactivity can be released into surface waters in the process of application of the resultant phosphate fertilizer (e.g. in many tobacco farming operations in the southeast US).

In December 2012, Cominco Resources announced an updated JORC compliant resource of their Hinda project in Congo-Brazzaville of 531 Mt, making it the largest measured and indicated phosphate deposit in the world.

Ecology
In ecological terms, because of its important role in biological systems, phosphate is a highly sought after resource. Once used, it is often a limiting nutrient in environments, and its availability may govern the rate of growth of organisms. This is generally true of freshwater environments, whereas nitrogen is more often the limiting nutrient in marine (seawater) environments. Addition of high levels of phosphate to environments and to micro-environments in which it is typically rare can have significant ecological consequences. For example, blooms in the populations of some organisms at the expense of others, and the collapse of populations deprived of resources such as oxygen (see eutrophication) can occur. In the context of pollution, phosphates are one component of total dissolved solids, a major indicator of water quality, but not all phosphorus is in a molecular form which algae can break down and consume.

Calcium hydroxyapatite and calcite precipitates can be found around bacteria in alluvial topsoil. As clay minerals promote biomineralization, the presence of bacteria and clay minerals resulted in calcium hydroxyapatite and calcite precipitates.

Phosphate deposits can contain significant amounts of naturally occurring heavy metals. Mining operations processing phosphate rock can leave tailings piles containing elevated levels of, , , , , and. Unless carefully managed, these waste products can leach heavy metals into groundwater or nearby estuaries. Uptake of these substances by plants and marine life can lead to concentration of toxic heavy metals in food products.

In Germany, the use of uranium-contaminated standard phosphate fertilizers in farming has been linked to significantly raised uranium levels in drinking water. In some areas, it has led to recommendations to use bottled water, instead of tap water, to prepare food for babies and small children.